Insleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. Although she did not experience any dream-like hallucinations, she was diagnosed with narcolepsy as a result of sleep testing. In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. When he told me, I made him go see the college therapist. Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with the outside world. While we all experience altered states of consciousness in the form of sleep on a regular basis, some people use drugs and other substances that result in altered states of consciousness as well. In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity. Five cardinal signs characterize this response: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Interestingly, since the advent of electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. The participant is encouraged to use his or her imagination. c. There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. In the central nervous system, it plays a role in arousal and reward mechanisms. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). There is a tremendous amount of variability among sufferers, both in terms of how symptoms of narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of currently available treatment options. Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. Physical dependenceinvolves changes in normal bodily functionsthe user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use. In the wake of the opiate epidemic, many drug cartels in Mexico are shifting from producing heroin to producing highly potent but inexpensive forms of methamphetamine. However, when a stimulant drug was used in conjunction with a popular antidepressant, her condition improved dramatically. Among a variety of neurobiological evidence, John Hobson cites research on lucid dreams as an opportunity to better understand dreaming in general. Thepineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws. To prevent withdrawal, many people turned to cheaper heroin, which could be bought for $5 a dose or less. In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). A neighbor called the police after witnessing Falater standing over his wifes body before dragging her into the pool. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. This pattern of temperature fluctuation, which repeats every day, is one example of a circadian rhythm. (b) Heroin is cooked on a spoon over a candle. Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. Methadoneis a synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles (Figure 4.9). Some research suggests that sleep deprivation affects cognitive and motor function as much as, if not more than, alcohol intoxication (Williamson & Feyer, 2000). Signs of inflammation help healthcare providers in making a diagnosis. This causes blood vessels to dilate, and the skin may feel warm and flushed. For individuals who are especially open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have demonstrated that hypnotic states are associated with global changes in brain functioning (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund, Vanhaudenhuyse, Boly, Laureys, & Soddu, 2012). This is an important factor because we can develop tolerance and experience withdrawal from any number of drugs that we do not abuse. Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. As he went to investigate what was going on, he was met by a group of police officers who arrested him for the murder of his wife (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. Homeostasisis the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly widespread. Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. Increased alertness, mild euphoria, decreased appetite in low doses. Nicotine is highly addictive, and the use of tobacco products is associated with increased risks of heart disease, stroke, and a variety of cancers. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. Acontinuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)device includes a mask that fits over the sleepers nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the persons airways, forcing them to remain open, as shown inFigure 4.13. We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of awareness on a regular basis. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environments natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of a circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature. We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive drugs. The chapter will close with discussions of altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation. Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years (Mitchell, 2009; Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2011). Beyond being awake or asleep, there are many other states of consciousness people experience. (Jayanthi & Ramamoorthy, 2005; Rothman, Blough, & Baumann, 2007). For instance, some people would say they are morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS (Berkowitz, 2012; Mage & Donner, 2006; Thach, 2005). While caffeine may have some indirect effects on dopamine neurotransmission, its primary mechanism of action involves antagonizing adenosine activity (Porkka-Heiskanen, 2011). The term was first coined by a physiologist named Walter Cannon in 1926. Heroin users often shoot the drug directly into their veins. While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. The heart rate slows . In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature. Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. Once she was able to limit her use to less than 12 ounces of soda a day, both her mental and physical health gradually improved. Opioid addiction reached crisis levels in the United States such that by 2019, an average of 130 people diedeach dayof an opioid overdose (NIDA, 2019). The crisis actually began in the 1990s, when pharmaceutical companies began mass-marketing pain-relieving opioid drugs like OxyContin with the promise (now known to be false) that they were non-addictive. How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of hypnosis? Some people might turn to over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can increase insomnia over time. Some animals never sleep (e.g., some fish and amphibian species); other animals sleep very little without apparent negative consequences (e.g., giraffes); yet some animals (e.g., rats) die after two weeks of sleep deprivation (Siegel, 2008). Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. Common definitions of health include: a. optimal weight and endurance. NCEH provides leadership to promote health and quality of life by preventing or controlling those diseases, birth defects, or disabilities resulting from interaction between people and the environment. Parasomnias can occur in either REM or NREM phases of sleep. (a) Delta waves, which are low frequency and high amplitude, characterize (b) slow-wave stage 3 and stage 4 sleep. It is not uncommon for people suffering from insomnia to experience increased levels of anxiety about their inability to fall asleep. THE INTERNAL STATE SCALE (ISS) Version 2 and the ChronoBook SCORING KEY AND SUMMARY Mark S. Bauer, MD . You don't have to be a psychologist to know that conditions like hunger or fatigue have an impact on thinking and decision-making; these are examples of internal states. Sleep reboundrefers to the fact that a sleep-deprived individual will fall asleep more quickly during subsequent opportunities for sleep. Ahallucinogenis one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure 4.18). His children and his wifes parents all agreed that Falater had an excellent relationship with his wife and they couldnt think of a reason that would provide any sort of motive to murder her (Cartwright, 2004). While disruptions in circadian rhythms can have negative consequences, there are things we can do to help us realign our biological clocks with the external environment. As mentioned earlier, one of the criteria for insomnia involves experiencing these symptoms for at least three nights a week for at least one months time (Roth, 2007). Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. Therefore, it is important to make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based therapeutic approach versus as a form of entertainment. Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. You were capable of engaging in the all of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though you were not aware of doing so. Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. Many of these processes, like much of psychological behavior, are rooted in our biology. Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. Latent content, on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. Night terrors apparently occur during the NREM phase of sleep (Provini, Tinuper, Bisulli, & Lagaresi, 2011). Train your body to associate the bed with sleeping rather than other activities like studying, eating, or watching television shows. Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm. Research shows that the most severe effects of sleep deprivation occur when a person stays awake for more than 24 hours (Killgore & Weber, 2014; Killgore et al., 2007), or following repeated nights with fewer than four hours in bed (Wickens, Hutchins, Lauk, Seebook, 2015). As a result, many of us sleep less than 78 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt. Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system. (credit a: modification of work by Todd Huffman), Psychedelic images like this are often associated with hallucinogenic compounds. There is quite a bit of controversy within the scientific community as to the extent to which marijuana might have medicinal benefits due to a lack of large-scale, controlled research (Bostwick, 2012). While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). In fact, this relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of neurodegenerative diseases (Ferini-Strambi, 2011). Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Caffeine is another stimulant drug. Which of the following was an advance in science and medicine in the18th and 19th centuries? Clonazepam, an anti-anxiety medication with sedative properties, is most often used to treat RBD. Upon admission to an outpatient clinic for treatment of mood disorders, she met all of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence and was advised to dramatically limit her caffeine intake. This is illustrated by McCartys (2010) case study of a 50-year-old woman who sought help for the excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours that she had experienced for several years. One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspective of evolutionary psychology. d. the gender gap between male and female life expectancy has increased. Not able to pass stool or gas. Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. The low cost coupled with lower risk of overdose than with opiate drugs is making crystal meth a popular choice among drug users today (NIDA, 2019). Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. Caffeine is an adenosine antagonist, so caffeine inhibits the adenosine receptors, thus decreasing sleepiness and promoting wakefulness. Users often consume the drug every few hours across days-long binges called runs, in which the user forgoes food and sleep. Cocaine can be taken in multiple ways. Rotating shift workrefers to a work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis. The fifth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,Fifth Edition(DSM-5) is used by clinicians to diagnose individuals suffering from various psychological disorders. Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. Given that withdrawal from a drug often involves an experience opposite to the effect of the drug, it should be no surprise that opioid withdrawal resembles a severe case of the flu. Understanding the impact of sleep on cognitive function should help you understand that cramming all night for a test may be not effective and can even prove counterproductive. For example, people who undergo chemotherapy will often be prescribed marijuana to stimulate their appetites and prevent excessive weight loss resulting from the side effects of chemotherapy treatment. Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in which a persons circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external environment. b. life expectancy has reached a new high. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. Although she had been taking a prescription antidepressant, her symptoms of depression continued to worsen and she began to suffer physically, displaying significant warning signs of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation (Rattenborg, Lesku, Martinez-Gonzalez, & Lima, 2007). For example, irritability, distractibility, and impairments in cognitive and moral judgment can occur with fewer than four hours of sleep. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). Hypnosisis a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. (a) A period of rapid eye movement is marked by the short red line segment. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). Primary signs and symptoms of Ebola often include some or several of the following: Fever. The smokable form reaches the brain very quickly to produce an intense euphoria that dissipates almost as fast as it arrives, prompting users to continuing taking the drug. Think meditation might help? People sleep better in cooler temperatures. Some sleep-deprived individuals have difficulty staying awake when they stop moving (for example sitting and watching television or driving a car). 1. Several of the nurses interviewed commented that their work schedules affected their relationships with their family. This feeling of a depressed mood is also accompanied by two or more additional symptoms, to include changes in appetite, insomnia or hypersomnia, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness, and poor concentration or difficulty with decision making. The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. High doses of MDMA can cause brain toxicity and death. If people are deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep without disturbance, they will spend more time in REM sleep in what would appear to be an effort to recoup the lost time in REM. One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. Scott Falater had a history of regular episodes of sleepwalking as a child, and he had even behaved violently toward his sister once when she tried to prevent him from leaving their home in his pajamas during a sleepwalking episode. According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is focused elsewhere. Perhaps our ancestors spent extended periods of time asleep to reduce attention to themselves from potential predators. Methamphetamine addiction produces an intense craving that is difficult to treat. Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwrights ideas about dreaming have found empirical support. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep (Burgess & Scammell, 2012; Hishikawa & Shimizu, 1995; Luppi et al., 2011). Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. Some view a hypnotized persons behavior not as an altered or dissociated state of consciousness, but as their fulfillment of the social expectations for that role (Coe, 2009; Coe & Sarbin, 1966). EVERYDAY CONNECTION: Solutions to Support Healthy Sleep, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening (Julien, 2005). As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affect. It is typically consumed in pill form. Amphetamines have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its release (Figure 4.16). Cognitive-behavioral therapyis a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors.

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