In stark contrast, less than one-quarter (24%) of those praised for effort opted for performance information. to learn and their decisions to expend effort on learning, whether in the moment or over time. When learners with mastery goals work to recall a previously learned piece of information, they also activate and strengthen memory for the other, related information they learned. Research on how to improve self-efficacy for learning has shown the benefits of several strategies for strengthening students sense of their competence for learning, including setting appropriate goals and breaking down difficult goals into subgoals (Bandura and Schunk, 1981) and providing students with information about their progress, which allows them to attribute success to their own effort (Schunk and Cox, 1986). 8. A persons motivation to persist in learning in spite of obstacles and setbacks is facilitated when goals for learning and achievement are made explicit, are congruent with the learners desired outcomes and motives, and are supported by the learning environment, as judged by the learner; this perspective is illustrated in Box 6-2. The studies included using measures of authentic education outcomes (e.g., standardized test scores, persistence at a task, course choices, or engagement) and showed consistent, small effects across intervention type. A comprehensive review of this literature is beyond the scope of this report, but we highlight a few key points. Learners who focus on learning rather than performance or who have intrinsic motivation to learn tend to set goals for themselves and regard increasing their competence to be a goal. Teachers can be effective in encouraging students to focus on learning instead of performance, helping them to develop a learning orientation. Goalsthe learners desired outcomesare important for learning because they guide decisions about whether to expend effort and how to direct attention, foster planning, influence responses to failure, and promote other behaviors important for learning (Albaili, 1998; Dweck and Elliot, 1983; Hastings and West, 2011). Others have found that achievement goals do not have a direct effect on academic achievement but operate instead through the intermediary learning behaviors described above and through self-efficacy (Hulleman et al., 2010). A key factor in motivation is an individuals mindset: the set of assumptions, values, and beliefs about oneself and the world that influence how one perceives, interprets, and acts upon ones environment (Dweck, 1999). The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures, Future Identities and Long-Term Persistence, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON MOTIVATION, Cross-Cultural Differences in Learners Self-Construals, Kitayama, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit, 1997. With motivation accepted as a malleable, context-sensitive factor, these data provide for both a better understanding of doctoral learning and highlight a potential What is already known does support the following general guidance for educators: CONCLUSION 6-2: Educators may support learners motivation by attending to their engagement, persistence, and performance by: There are many reasons to be curious about the way people learn, and the past several decades have seen an explosion of research that has important implications for individual learning, schooling, workforce training, and policy. Research is needed, however, to better establish the efficacy of practices designed to shape learners thinking about future identities and persistence. Some students were praised for their ability (well done for being so smart) and others for their effort (well done for working so hard). One explanation for these findings is that a sense of competence emerges from identity: as players, students felt competent to calculate scoring averages and percentages, but because they did not identify as math students, they felt ill-equipped to solve the same problems in the classroom context. We begin by describing some of the primary theoretical perspectives that have shaped this research, but our focus is on four primary influences on peoples motivation to learn. Motivation is distinguishable from general cognitive functioning and helps to explain gains in achievement independent of scores on intelligence tests (Murayama et al., 2013). These include constructivist orientation, Identity is a persons sense of who she is. At other times, features of the learning environment energize a state of wanting to know more, which activates motivational processes. Within the category of performance-approach goals, researchers have identified both self-presentation goals (wanting others to think you are smart) and normative goals (wanting to outperform others) (Hulleman et al., 2010). It is critical to learning and achievement across the life span in both informal settings and formal learning environments. In a randomized controlled study, African American and European American college students were asked to write a speech that attributed adversity in learning to a common aspect of the college-adjustment process rather than to personal deficits or their ethnic group (Walton and Cohen, 2011). This approach has allowed researchers to assess the separate effects of topic interest and interest in a specific text on how readers interact with text, by measuring the amount of time learners spend reading and what they learn from it. Copyright 2023 National Academy of Sciences. Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features? Learners may not always be conscious of their goals or of the motivation processes that relate to their goals. mindset (with respect to whether difficult tasks are ones that people like me do) (Immordino-Yang et al., 2012). Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available. Experiential learning is a cognitive strategy that allows you to take valuable life lessons from your interactions with other people. Abstract. Practices that help learners recognize the motivational demands required and obstacles to overcome for achieving desired future outcomes also may support goal attainment, as suggested in one study of childrens attempts to learn foreign-language vocabulary words (Gollwitzer et al., 2011). A learning orientation benefits from a growth mindset, but highlights the cognitive intention of proactively seeking to learn from any situation. Motivational Techniques and Learners These findings highlight an important feature of stereotype threat: it is not a characteristic solely of a person or of a context but rather a condition that results from an interaction between the two. Mueller and Dweck (1998) conducted two studies in which students received praise for their performance on a reasoning test. Self-determination and Motivated Engagement in Language However, research regarding the impact of performance goals on academic outcomes has yielded mixed findings (Elliot and McGregor, 2001; Midgley et al., 2001). Motivational Orientation Five Counseling Theories and Approaches June 1, 2015 Psychotherapy theories provide a framework for therapists and counselors to interpret a clients behavior, thoughts, and feelings and help them navigate a clients journey from diagnosis to post-treatment. Which of these goals becomes salient in directing behavior at what times depends on the way the individual construes the situation. 8 Types of Motivation for Online Learning | LearnDash Further, when given the choice, a higher proportion (86%) of students praised for ability chose to examine a folder they were told contained average scores of other test takers, rather than a folder they were told contained new interesting strategies for solving similar test problems. Researchers have explored the mechanisms through which such experiences affect learning. The next section examines types of goals and research on their influence. 6 Motivation to Learn | How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, Similar negative effects of stereotype threat manifest among Latino youth (Aronson and Salinas, 1997; Gonzales et al., 2002; Schmader and Johns, 2003). motivational Not a MyNAP member yet? Depending on the age of a Dweck (1986) argued that achievement goals reflect learners underlying theories of the nature of intelligence or ability: whether it is fixed (something with which one is born) or malleable. Over the past decade, a number of studies have suggested that interventions that enhance both short- and long-term motivation and achievement using brief interventions or exercises can be effective (e.g., Yeager and Walton, 2011). Cognitive theories, for example, have focused on how learners set goals for learning and achievement and how they maintain and monitor their progress toward those goals. SOURCE: Adapted from Ames and Archer (1988, Tbl. Similarly, activities that learners perceive as threatening to their sense of competence or self-esteem (e.g., conditions that invoke stereotype threat, discussed below3) may reduce learners motivation and performance even (and sometimes especially) when they intend to perform well. When learners want and expect to succeed, they are more likely to value learning, persist at challenging tasks, and perform well. 4 The 2006 study included 119 African American and 119 European American students; the 2009 study was a 2-year follow-up with the same sample. Learners interest is an important consideration for educators because they can accommodate those interests as they design curricula and select learning resources. Such research illustrates one of the keys to expectancy-value theory: the idea that expectancy and value dimensions work together. In this chapter, we provide updates and additional elaboration on research in this area. This requires bolstering or repositioning dimensions of social identity. Enabling threatened individuals to affirm their talents in other domains through self-affirmations has in some situations strengthened students sense of self (McQueen and Klein, 2006). The report summarized insights on the nature of learning in school-aged children; described principles for the design of effective learning environments; and provided examples of how that could be implemented in the classroom. For example, several studies have compared students indications of endorsement for performance-avoidance goals and found that Asian students endorsed these goals to a greater degree than European American students did (Elliot et al., 2001; Zusho and Njoku, 2007; Zusho et al., 2005). Related research indicates that enhanced motivation is dependent on learners taking charge of their own learning (Lamb 2001; da Silva 2002; Sakui 2002; Takagi 2003; Ushioda 2003, 2006). CONCEPTUAL ORIENTATIONS IN TEACHER Further, congruence in learners perceptions of their own and their schools mastery orientation is associated with positive academic achievement and school well-being (Kaplan and Maehr, 1999). Research has also linked learners beliefs about learning and achievement, or mindsets, with students pursuit of specific types of learning goals (Maehr and Zusho, 2009). Findings from studies of this sort suggest that educators can foster students interest by selecting resources that promote interest, by providing feedback that supports attention (Renninger and Hidi, 2002), by demonstrating their own interest in a topic, and by generating positive affect in learning contexts (see review by Hidi and Renninger, 2006). The scale interest orientation as an indicator of an intrinsic motivational orientation (IMO) refers to the perceived possibilities (or expectations) to realize vocation-related interest as a reason for learning. friendships and more flexible action plans for achieving those goals. Typically, in language learning theorizing, a goal orientation is viewed as a reason, or a cluster of reasons for learning the language. Researchers have identified several actions educators can take that may help to manage stereotype threat. Goal Orientation Awareness. The influence of motivational orientations on academic 2 The 2008 study was a meta-analysis, so the study populations are not described. Expectancy-value theories have drawn attention to how learners choose goals depending on their beliefs about both their ability to accomplish a task and the value of that task. Learners who embrace performance-avoidance goals work to avoid looking incompetent or being embarrassed or judged as a failure, whereas those who adopt performance-approach goals seek to appear more competent than others and to be judged socially in a favorable light. Students may misinterpret short-term failure as reflecting that they do not belong, when in fact short-term failure is common among all college students. Research in this area suggests that learners who strongly endorse mastery goals tend to enjoy novel and challenging tasks (Pintrich, 2000; Shim et al., 2008; Witkow and Fuligni, 2007; Wolters, 2004), demonstrate a greater willingness to expend effort, and engage higher-order cognitive skills during learning (Ames, 1992; Dweck and Leggett, 1988; Kahraman and Sungur, 2011; Middleton and Midgley, 1997). less likely to seek challenges and persist than those who focus on learning itself. Goal Orientations: Three Perspectives on Motivation However, some studies have suggested that task valuation seems to be the strongest predictor of behaviors associated with motivation, such as choosing topics and making decisions about participation in training (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2008). In a prototypical experiment to test stereotype threat, a difficult achievement test is given to individuals who belong to a group for whom a negative stereotype about ability in that achievement domain exists. More research is needed on instructional methods and how the structure of formal schooling can influence motivational processes. Classrooms can be structured to make particular goals more or less salient and can shift or reinforce learners goal orientations (Maehr and Midgley, 1996). Work on such interventions is based on the assumption that one cultural perspective is not inherently better than the other: the most effective approaches would depend on what the person is trying to achieve in the moment and the context in which he is operating. These researchers found that performance-avoidance goals can be adaptive and associated with such positive academic outcomes as higher levels of engagement, deeper cognitive processing, and higher achievement. of different performance-based incentives in classrooms (e.g., grades, prizes), a better, more integrated understanding is needed of how external rewards may harm or benefit learners motivation in ways that matter to achievement and performance in a range of real-world conditions across the life span. This volume addresses motivation in language learning A mastery-oriented structure in the classroom is positively correlated with high academic competency and negatively related to disruptive behaviors. However, other studies have not replicated these findings (e.g., Dee, 2015; Hanselman et al., 2017), so research is needed to determine for whom and under which conditions values-affirmation approaches may be effective. This letter suggests that although the student came to school ready to engage with his teacher about interesting ideas and to learn new academic skills, the teachers strategy for managing the class caused him to infer that his teachers main goal was to control his behavior, rather than to help him learn. Given the prevalence. Other work (Cameron et al., 2005) suggests that when rewards are inherent in the achievement itselfthat is, when rewards for successful completion of a task include real privileges, pride, or respectthey can spur intrinsic motivation. In 2000, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition was published and its influence has been wide and deep. WebFor an entity theorist, the meaning of effort is "The harder you try, the dumber you therefore must be." Researchers are beginning to develop interventions motivated by theories of motivation to improve student motivation and learning. Such findings suggest that having opportunities to be reminded of the full range of dimensions of ones identity may promote resilience against stereotype threats. For example, in a study of African American children in an urban elementary school, introduction of a reading test as an index of ability hampered performance only among students who reported being aware of racial stereotypes about intelligence (Walton and Spencer, 2009). information. The chart refers to a color-coded scheme for monitoring behavior with three levels: green (successful), yellow (warning), and red (call parent). The study Student goal orientation, motivation and learning In randomized field experiments, self-affirmation tasks were associated with better grades for middle school students (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009)4 and college students (Miyake et al., 2010). In the case of women and math, for instance, women perform more poorly on the math test than would be expected given their actual ability (as demonstrated in other contexts) (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Many students experience a decline in motivation from the primary grades through high school (Gallup, Inc., 2014; Jacobs et al., 2002; Lepper et al., 2005). They further distinguish between performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals (Senko et al., 2011). In this section, the committee discusses three specific lines of research that illustrate the importance of culturally mediated views of the self and social identities to learners perceptions of learning environments, goals, and performance. Individuals tend to engage in activities that connect them to their social identities because doing so can support their sense of belonging and esteem and help them integrate into a social group. Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released. Motivational Orientation in English Language Learning An analysis of reported motivational orientation in students For example, a less-than-skilled reader may nevertheless approach a difficult reading task with strong motivation to persist in the task if it is interesting, useful, or important to the readers identity (National Research Council, 2012c). Thus, teaching strategies that use rewards to capture and stimulate interest in a topic (rather than to drive compliance), that provide the student with encouragement (rather than reprimands), and that are perceived to guide student progress (rather than just monitor student progress) can foster feelings of autonomy, competence, and academic achievement (e.g., Vansteenkist et al., 2004). Some have focused on goals as motives or reasons to learn (Ames and Ames, 1984; Dweck and Elliott, 1983; Locke et al., 1981; Maehr, 1984; Nicholls, 1984). This may be the case, for example, with videogames in which individuals are highly motivated to play well in order to move to the next higher level. For example, researchers who study psychological aspects of motivation take a motivational systems perspective, viewing motivation as a set of psychological mechanisms and processes, such as those related to setting goals, engagement in learning, and use of self-regulatory strategies (Kanfer, 2015; Linnenbrink-Garcia and Patall, 2016; Yeager and Walton, 2011). It includes statements such as, I learn because I am interested in the topic.. Two forms of learner interest have been identified. Situational interest is malleable, can affect student engagement and learning, and is influenced by the tasks and materials educators use or encourage (Hunsu et al., 2017). The research described in Box 6-3 illustrates the potential and powerful influence of social identity on learners engagement with a task. The idea that extrinsic rewards harm intrinsic motivation has been supported in a meta-analysis of 128 experiments (Deci et al., 1999, 2001). (See also the work of Chan and Lai [2006] on students in Hong Kong; Hulleman et al. Our Motivation Science lab takes an integrative approach, drawing from multiple disciplines (e.g., cognitive, social and educational psychology, cognitive/social Learners goals may reflect the classrooms goal structure or the values teachers communicate about learning through their teaching practices (e.g., how the chairs are set up or whether the teacher uses cooperative learning groups) (see Kaplan and Midgley, 1999; Urdan et al., 1998). In a large study of students across several nations that examined seven different dimensions related to self-construal (Vignoles et al., 2016), researchers found neither a consistent contrast between Western and non-Western cultures nor one between collectivistic and individualistic cultures. All learners goals emerge in a particular cultural context. (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2013). Performance goals may in fact undermine conceptual learning and long-term recall. The effect of external rewards on intrinsic motivation is a topic of much debate. Motivational Orientation - an overview | ScienceDirect Although research suggests steps that educators can take that may help to. Students who received praise for ability were more likely to adopt performance goals on a subsequent test, whereas those praised for effort were more likely to adopt mastery goals. conscious awareness. Motivation After 3 years, African American students who had participated in the intervention reported less uncertainty about belonging and showed greater improvement in their grade point averages compared to the European American students. This paper reports on a study of five motivational orientations in continuing education among working adults. For example, students who have a strong academic identity and value academic achievement highly are more vulnerable to academic stereotype threat than are other students (Aronson et al., 1999; Keller, 2007; Lawrence et al., 2010; Leyens et al., 2000; Steele, 1997). WebThe MSLQ is designed to measure students motivational orientation and use of different learning strategies. Learning Taken together, these four components of Academic goals are shaped not only by the immediate learning context but also by the learners goals and challenges, which develop and change. These differences were presumed to be fixed and to dictate learners responses to features in the learning environment (method of instruction, incentives, and so on) and their motivation and performance. Behavior-based theories of learning, which conceptualized motivation in terms of habits, drives, incentives, and reinforcement schedules, were popular through the mid-20th century. Motivation is one of the key learner characteristics that determine the rate and success of language learning. . In stark contrast, when asked to solve the problems in classroom math terms, players were visibly distressed. During adolescence, for example, social belongingness goals may take precedence over academic achievement goals: young people may experience greater motivation and improved learning in a group context that fosters relationships that serve and support achievement. Intrinsic vs. extrinsic A common distinction made in the literatureis between extrinsic and intrinsic forms of As we discuss below, learners who have a fixed view of intelligence tend to set demonstrating competence as a learning goal, whereas learners who have an incremental theory of intelligence tend to set mastery as a goal and to place greater value on effort. They also consider how physical aspects of the learning environment, such as classroom structures (Ames, 1986) and social interactions (e.g., Gehlbach et al., 2016), affect learning through their impacts on students goals, beliefs, affect, and actions.